Rice in Pakistan Overview
Rice is quintessentially Asian crop because 90% of rice production and consumption is concentrated in this region. It is the staple food for 50% of the world and 75% of the world’s poor.
Rice is an important food and cash crop, In Pakistan, it is the second staple food after wheat and it’s the second largest earner of foreign exchange after cotton. Pakistan is the 11th largest producer and 5th largest exporter of rice. Rice accounts 4.9% percent of the value added in agriculture and 1% percent of GDP of Pakistan. During July-March 2013-14, rice export earned foreign exchange of US$ 1.667 billion. During 2013-14, rice is cultivated on an area of 2789 thousand hectares, 20.8 percent higher than last year’s area of 2309 thousand hectares. The production stood at 6798 thousand tonnes, against the target of 6200 thousand tonnes shows a growth of 9.6 percent against the target if compared to corresponding period of last year production which was 5536 thousand tonnes, a healthy increase of 22.8 percent witnessed. The rice acreage increased due to lucrative market prices received during the last year which induced the growers to bring more area under cultivation. The production increased due to increase in the area while improved yield remained not impressive due to flood/excessive rains and attack of leaf roller and blight in some cultivated areas. The area, production and yield of rice for the last five years.
| Area, Production and Yield of Rice | ||||||
| Year | Area | Production | Yield | |||
| (000 Hectare) | % Change | (000 Tonnes) | % Change | (kgs / Hec.) | % Change | |
| 2009-10 | 2,883 | – | 6,883 | – | 2,387 | – |
| 2010-11 | 2,365 | -18.0 | 4,823 | -29.9 | 2,039 | -14.6 |
| 2011-12 | 2,571 | 8.7 | 6,160 | 27.7 | 2,396 | 17.5 |
| 2012-13 | 2,309 | -10.2 | 5,536 | -10.1 | 2,398 | 0.1 |
| 2013-14 (P) | 2,789 | 20.8 | 6,798 | 22.8 | 2,437 | 1.6 |
Rice Important Cash Crop of Pakistan
21 September – October 2013 Export of rice from Pakistan decreased from the US $2.18 billion in 2009-10 to the US $1.92 billion in 2012-13, thus showing a decline of 19%. Pakistan mainly exports rice to UAE, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kenya, and Afghanistan. In Pakistan rice are an important cash crop of the country and the overall national economy. Rice accounts 4.9% of the value added in agriculture and 1% of GDP. Rice ranks as second among the staple food grain crop in Pakistan and it has been a major source of foreign exchange earnings in recent years. Rice provides 21% of global human per capita energy and 15% of per capita protein. Although rice protein ranks high in nutritional quality among cereals, protein content is modest. Rice also provides minerals, vitamins, and fiber, although all constituents except carbohydrates are reduced by milling. On the other hand, rice contains no additives or preservatives, making it an excellent inclusion in a healthy and balanced diet. Rice also contains resistant starch, which is the starch that reaches the bowel undigested. This encourages the growth of beneficial bacteria, keeping the bowel healthy.
It fulfills the food requirements of our country but we also earn a lot of foreign exchange from its export. Besides it is an important raw material for manufacturing starch, paper, sandals, hats, mattresses etc. grain as well as its husk is also used as fodder for cattle.
Rice Export
Export of rice from Pakistan decreased from the US $2.18 billion in 2009-10 to the US $1.92 billion in 2012-13, thus showing the decline of 19%. Pakistan mainly exports rice to UAE, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kenya, and Afghanistan. UAE is the largest importer of rice with the market share of about 13% while Iran and Saudi Arabia are second and third largest importers of rice with shares of 7% and 6% respectively. Export of rice from Pakistan are given in Table 2 and country-wise exports of rice are given in Table 3. India kept basmati exports banned for around two years. but lifted the ban after it estimated to produce surplus crop last year. The neighboring country is giving tough time to the world markets such as Europe and Iran and India enjoys good relations with Iran than Pakistan. Pakistan and Iran cannot have official trade since the United States has put economic sanctions on Iran. Banks in Pakistan are no more opening letter of cred- it's for goods to Iran. India is having no such issues with Iran and having good trade ties at the state level. The cost of doing business has risen sharply in Pakistan after the country continued to face electricity amid the energy crisis. This factor is also giving an edge to the Indian rice in the world market over Pakistani rice. India is selling rice at the world markets at a price, which is lower than Pakistan. Iran’s decision to enhance import duty on rice imports from 45% to 90% as an import reduction strategy has hit rice exporters in Pakistan. However, Pakistan’s exports to Iran had already been greatly reduced due to the cheaper price of Indian rice and the reluctance of local banks to accept letters of credit, following US sanctions on Iran, other exporting countries have suffered greater losses than Pakistan. According to sources, Iran makes changes in duty according to the needs of the country to protect local prices of the commodity especially in the wake of increased domestic rice production. There was no ban on trade, but the fresh move was just a strategy that many countries use to protect their local markets and it would be reviewed.
| Export of Rice from Pakistan Value: us$ million | |||
| Year | Basmati | Other Varieties | Total |
| 2008-09 | 1,070 | 913 | 1,983 |
| 2009-10 | 856 | 1,328 | 2,184 |
| 2010-11 | 963 | 1,197 | 2,160 |
| 2011-12 | 826 | 1,236 | 2,062 |
| 2012-13 | 658 | 1,261 | 1,919 |
Production Zones / Cropping Patterns
In Pakistan rice is grown under diverse climatic, hydrological and edaphic conditions and is divided into 4 distinct agro-ecological zones. In most of the cases, critical problems in rice production and protection are specific to a particular zone. Production technology package is developed keeping in view the distinct agro-ecological conditions in each zones.
Market Analysis of Sindh
In Sindh rice is grown on about 2 million acres of land with per acres yield at 45 – 50 maunds, which like all crops in Pakistan does not reflect actual potential. rice sector employs about half a million of the rural labour force. Overall, such produces 35% of the country’s rice with annual production at around 3.5 million tons of which 2 million tons of milled rice is produced by more than 800 rice mills.
Problem Faced by Rice Milling Cluster in Sindh
Initially, rice mills were installed with old iron hullers for husking . In the mid 90’s , sellers were introduced which were followed by polisher SM 18 to achieve operational efficiency. If compared with rice producing countries like Thailand, Vietnam, China and Japan, most of the mills have outdated technology with operational losses s high as 40%, declining revenues, high fuel and maintenance costs.
Recommendation for Enhancing Production
To meet the ever growing domestic needs of food and enhance exports and to achieve sustainability and stability of rice production the following research areas would receive priority.
(a) Varietal Improvement
A quantum jump in rice production was achieved in the sixties by large scale adoption of high yielding semi-dwarf varieties. Since the development of this plant type, there is the marginal increase in rice production. To achieve another quantum jump in rice production, following varietal improvement strategies are being proposed:
1. Modification of plant architecture.
2. Development of hybrid rice technology.
3. Wide-hybridization.
(b) Soil and Nutrient Management
In order to develop appropriate management practices, sustain soil fertility and high yields, it is vital to understand the kinetics, transformation and interaction of essential nutrients in rice and other crops grown in rice-based cropping systems. The inclusion of legumes in the rice-based systems would be one of the options to sustain soil fertility. There is also need to increase nutrient use efficiency, minimize fertilizer losses and increase the use of bio-fertilizers.
(c) Integrated Pest Management
§ Develop techniques for the conservation of bio-control agents in rice and rice-based cropping systems.
§ Develop pesticide reduction technology for the management of insects, weeds, rodent pests etc.
§ Screening and evaluation of rice germplasm under greenhouse and field conditions for resistance to major insect pests.
§ Develop cultural control methods of different categories of pests.
Biological and Historical References
Rice belongs to the genus “Oxygen”, two species of which are cultivated, ”Oryza Glaberrima” and “Oryza Sativa”.The former is found only in tropical west African while the latter is found all over the rice growing areas.The exact origin of rice is not known but most of the research workers give this credit to South East Asia. After 1468 it was introduced in Italy from where it spread to European and many other countries of the world.
Favorable Conditions For Its growth
Temperature
Rice is a tropical plant.it requires high temperature during the growing season of 4 to 6 months.The temperature should be more than 80 degrees F and in no way less than 70 degrees F even for the quick maturing varieties.In Pakistan rice is cultivated only one a year i.e.early summer.Its cultivation is not possible in areas of severe cold or where the temperature goes below freezing point.
Water
Rice is known as a plant of water.Its cultivation requires a large amount of moisture.The annual rainfall should not be in any way leas than 40 “.The root of the rice plant should remain submerged in water for a long time.For 75 days the rice fields should have 6 ” of slow moving water.When the rice crops mature ,less water is required and during ripening season,the field should be almost dry so that it can be harvested easily.
The rice growing areas of Pakistan have an average annual rainfall of less than 20 ” .So the deficiency of rainfall has been met by the artificial arrangements of irrigation water through canals and tube wells etc.
Soil
With the exemption of sandy soils which are very permeable ,rice can be grown successfully on soils ranging from silt loam to clays .Alluvial soil is the most suitable soil for the rich growth of rice.Heavy clayey subsoil with water retaining capacity gives best results.
Land
The flooding of rice fields requires level land and therefore river valleys,deltas and coasted plains are suitable areas,otherwise terracing is required.
System of Cultivation
There are two methods of rice cultivation:
Broad Cast Sowing
This involves direct plantation of rice plants in the fields.
Transplantation
In this case, sowing is first done in nursery beds.When the plants attain a height of 4 ” to 6 “,they are transplanted into big fields.This method is also called the Japanese method.It is the most scientific and beneficial method.By its practice ,the per acre production increases considerably.
Rice is mostly cultivated in rows and the distance from row to row is kept about 6 ” and from plant to plant remains 3 “.
Rice Growing Areas
Cultivation of rice is mainly confined to the low-lying parts of the Punjab plain and the flooded rivers and canal areas of Sindh.To a small extent, it is also grown in the sub-mountain districts in the North and the canal irrigated areas.Rice cultivation in N.W.F.P .Baluchistan and Azad Kashmir areas are not more than 1 % to 2 % of their total areas.
Punjab
In Punjab,the division of Lahore and Gujranwala rank at the top. Best qualities like Basmati, Parmal, Sukhdari, Irri-six etc are grown in this part of Punjab. Besides somu rice is also cultivated in Shakhupura, Sargodha, Faisalabad, Multan and Bahawalpur divisions.
Sindh
In the province of Sindh,the districts of Sukkur division are most famous for good quality rice cultivation .Larkana district ranks at cultivated in Khairpur,Nawabshah and Hyderabad districts.The main qualities of rice which are common in the province of Sindh are Kangni, Beghi, Irri-8 etc.
Rice Production
Pakistan is the world’s largest producer of rice. Each year, it produces an average of 6 million tonnes and together with the rest of the South Asia; the coun- try is responsible for supplying 25% of the world’s paddy rice output. Most of these crops are grown in the fertile Sindh and Punjab region with millions of farm- ers relying on rice cultivation as their major source of employment. Among the most famous varieties grown in Pakistan include the Basmati, known for its flavor and quality. Rice production comprises 40% of Basmati (Fine) type and 60% of coarse types.
Modern Rice Varieties
In Pakistan, modern rice varieties were adopted rather rapidly after Irri rice was introduced in 1968. The rice variety Irri was reportedly successful in Pakistan because of high solar radiation and abundant irrigation water. When properly managed, Irri yielded three to four times as much as local varieties and enabled the country to increase its rice production substantially.
Type of Rice
Different varieties of rice are grown in Pakistan, for example:
1. Super Basmati
2. Basmati Rice PK-385
3. Long Grain 386 Rice
4. IRRI-6 White Rice
5. IRRI-9 White Rice
6. Parboiled Rice
7. Brown Rice
Super Basmati
Basmati is the finest variety of rice. Characterized by a unique aroma, extra length, and slender grain, Basmati tastes delicious and is a purest & fresh gift to the world. Cultivated mainly in the fertile plains of Pakistan, the crop matures in monsoons to become fine rice. What is nurtured so tenderly by lush green field & fed by the perennial clear rivers is cradled to perfection in our hands to reach your taste buds as an exquisite delicacy. The grain becomes two-three times longer on being cooked.
Basmati Rice PK-385
Basmati is the finest variety of rice. Characterized by a unique aroma, extra length, and slender grain, Basmati tastes delicious. Our Basmati Rice has to be tasted to be believed. The grain becomes two-three times longer on being cooked.
Long Grain 386 Rice
Long Grain 386 Rice a special quality rice, only produced in the province of Punjab and has been gaining international recognition as one of the best qualities of diet rice. Though it is counted as Non-Basmati Rice but its aroma and cooking results match the Basmati Pk-385 variety.
IRRI-6 White Rice
This is the low priced, high volume rice. This variety is grown in the Sindh province of Pakistan and is a major export quality to a number of Middle Eastern and African Ports.
IRRI-9 White Rice
This variety is grown in both the Sindh and Punjab provinces in Pakistan.
Parboiled Rice
Husked rice that first has been heating tempered, soaked in warm water under pressure and dried before milling ; this process allows the inner kernel to retain more of the vitamins and minerals from the bran layer which also clarifies the more yellow kernel after is has been milled. Parboiled rice is healthier than white rice.
Brown Rice
Brown Rice is the least processed form of rice. It has the outer hull removed, but still retains the bran layers and germs are still intact. The bran layers give this type of rice its characteristic tan color and nut-like flavor. The outside layer of the bran gives this rice a chewier texture than white rice.
Rice Sowing Area and Yield
Rice sowing area is estimated at 2.31 million hectares, 10.1% less than last year’s area of 2.57 million hectares. Production of rice decreased from 6.95 mil- lion tonnes in 2008-09 to 5.54 million tonnes in 2012-13, thus showing a decline of 20%. The production decreased due to a decrease in area and effects of monsoon rain and late receding of water period in rice fields prolonged the sowing. Rice is grown in many areas of Pakistan. In Punjab, it is cultivated in Sialkot, Wazirabad, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, district Gujrat, Sargodha, Faisalabad, and Kasur. In Sindh, Jacobabad, Larkana, Badin, Thatta, Shikarpur and Dadu district are important in rice cultivation. District Nasirabad and Baluchistan are also a rice producing area. The areas, production and yield of rice for the last five years.
Rice Diseases and Their Control
Blight or Brown Spot (Helminthosporium oryzae)
Symptoms: This disease has been recorded all over Pakistan. Initially small dots or circular eye shaped or oval spots appear light in colour on leaves. These spots coalesce and result in linear spots brown in colour. Later on, withering and yellowing of leaves occur. Seed setting also affected and causes sterility, shrivelling and show rotting and poor germination.
Perpetuation: Diseased seeds, plant debris and soils help the fungus to survive, while air and irrigation water help to the fungus for transmitting from diseased to healthy plants.
Control:
1. Use of resistant varieties or disease free seed in healthy soils,
2. Sanitation and crop rotation,
3. Hot water seed treatment at 54 oC for 10 minutes or with seed dressing fungicides,
4. Collection and destruction of stubble and spraying with copper fungicides at right time and
5. Application of suitable foliar fungicides may help to minimise further dissemination of the disease.
Bunt of Rice (Tilletia barclayana)
Symptoms: This disease also called black or kernel smut is generally distributed wherever rice is grown. Diseased grains are filled with black powder, which can be detected by breaking them. Only a few grains may be affected wholly or partially in an ear. If not severely infected, seeds may germinate but seedlings are stunted.
Perpetuation: The disease causing organism is soil borne.
Control:
1. Cultivation of resistant varieties,
2. Use of healthy seed,
3. Sowing early maturing varieties,
4. Avoid high rates of nitrogen fertilizer,
5. Avoid winnowing and threshing of diseased crop in field,
6. Treat the seed with suitable chemicals easily available in the market and
7. Collect and burn diseased ear heads.
Rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae)
Symptoms: Sometimes this disease refers as Pyrricularia blight or rotten neck, generally distributed where ever rice is grown. Small spots appear on leaves, nodes, panicles and grains and sometimes on leaf sheaths. The spots begin as small, water-soaked, whitish, greyish or bluish dots. These spots rapidly increase and become grey in the centre. Brown to black spots also develops on inflorescence and glumes. In later stages, diseased heads appear blasted and whitish in colour. Grain development is affected and the panicles droop.
Perpetuation: The disease perpetuates through diseased plant debris lying in the field, seed, and wild grasses.
Control:
1. Burn and destroy diseased plant debris and stubble,
2. Early planting,
3. Cultivation of resistant varieties,
4. Use of healthy seed,
5. Dusting the seed with any one of the organic mercurial seed dressing fungicides,
6. Spray the crop with organo-mercurials,
7. Avoid excessive depth application of irrigation water,
8. Avoid excessive plant population and
9. Control grasses and other weeds.
Bakanae Disease (Fusarium moniliform)
Symptoms: This disease is also called white stalk, generally distributed where ever rice is grown. Infected seedlings are thin, chlorotic, may die before or after transplanting. In the field, infected plants have few tillers and leaves die in short time. Live plants have empty panicles. Some infected plants may be stunted instead of elongated, while the abnormal elongation of these (infected) plants in seed bed or field is the most common symptom of this disease.
Perpetuation: The disease causing fungus is seed and soil borne, through which it can survive for a long period.
Control:
1. Cultivation of resistant varieties and
2. Seed treatment.
UFRA OF Rice
Symptoms: The disease has been reported from Bangladesh, Egypt, India and South Asia. The leaves become yellow and wither, seedlings die. Brown spots appear on leaves and leaf sheaths. Stems may also bear spots. These spots become darker brown along with upper internodes of the stem. Ears may not emerge or may show swellings and become twisted and distorted. Grains are not formed usually.
Perpetuation: Diseased plant debris carrying disease-causing nematodes.
Control:
1. Burn the stubble,
2. Grow early maturing varieties,
3. Use healthy seed and
4. Plough the field thoroughly after harvest so as to expose the soil to sun-heat.
Bacterial blight
Symptoms: Water soaked stripes appear along the margin of leaf blades, which later on enlarge and turn yellow. These lesions may cover the entire blade, may extend to the lower end of the leaf sheath. Similar symptoms may occur on glumes of green grains.
Perpetuation: Survive in rhizosphere of weed hosts, infected straw, and root stubble. Disseminate by wind and water.
Control:
Cultivation of resistant varieties is alone easy and safe way to prevent the crop against diseases including this disease also.
Stem Rot
Symptoms: Two to three months old plants begin to wither and ultimately dry up; the sheaths soon turn somewhat dark and start rotting. Black dots (fruiting bodies of sclerotia) occur at the base of dried leaves and leaf sheaths. Stem begins to rot and become soft, plant falls down.
Perpetuation: Infested soil helps the organism for its survival.
Control:
1. Use of resistant varieties,
2. Burning of diseased rice stubble,
3. Crop rotation and
4. Antagonistic organisms.
Major Insects Pests of Rice Crop
The insect pests that cause serious and economic damage are commonly known as major or important insect pests of rice and these major insect pests are given below with detail of their scientific name, family name and order name,
Rice Hispa
The scientific or technical name of rice hispa is Dicladispa armigera (Olivier) belonging to family Chrysomelidae of Coleoptera order.
Damage
§ Adult scrape leaf up of lower epidermis. Larvae hatched out from eggs move into tissues by making holes. White strips can be seen on damaged leaves which similar to damaged caused by brown planthopper.
§ Migrate from one field to next. Severely damage in cultivation in India and Bangladesh
Control
§ Cutoffs damaged leaves and destroy them.
§ Collects adults and destroy them.
Rice Leaf Folder
The scientific or technical name of rice leaf folder is Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) and it belongs to family Pyralidae and order Lepidoptera.
Damage
§ 3 spices are found in Sri Lanka that causes damages.
§ Leaf margins are folded and folded capsules and eat tissues by scarping. Paddy turns white, discolors and folded. Paddy is seemed as malnourished and poor looking
Control
§ Remove shade plant to provide strong sunlight. Apply nitrogen fertilizers as required.
§ Use insecticides if the moth population is high to control larvae.
Striped Stem Borer of Rice
The scientific or technical name of striped stem borer of rice is Chilo suppressants (Walker) and it belongs to family Pyralidae and order Lepidoptera.
White Stem Borer of Rice
The technical or scientific name of white stem borer of rice is Scirpophaga innotata (Walker) and it belongs to order Lepidoptera and family Pyralidae.
Yellow Stem Borer of Rice
The technical or scientific name of yellow stem borer of rice is Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) and it belongs to family Pyralidae of order Lepidoptera.
White-Backed Planthopper
The technical or scientific name of white-backed planthopper is Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) and it belongs to family Delphacidae of order Homoptera.
Damage
§ It is not a virus vector. Population density is greater at the initial stage of growing season and late decreased. Can not be seen the plant hopper brunt if the population density is high burnt appear and turn the field to yellowish brown.
Control
§ Supervise field. Apply insecticides
Brown Plant Hopper
The technical or scientific name of brown plant hopper is Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) and it belongs to family Delphacidae and order Lepidoptera.
Damage
§ Main pest of paddy in Asian countries. Cause brown plant hopper burning. In the initial stage, paddy becomes yellow, later dry and dies.
§ Burning is due to sucking of sap from the stem. a vector for many virus diseases.
Control
§ Use of resistant varieties
§ Regulation observation of fields
§ Cutoff water in field
Rice Water Weevil
The rice water weevil is a key pest of rice. Adults feed on rice leaves and lay their eggs underwater in rice stems. Eggs hatch and larvae move to the roots upon which they feed. As the larvae grow, they shed their skins periodically and increase in size. The larvae complete four instars (stages between molts) before pupating in a mud cocoon attached to rice roots. Research shows that an average of 1 larva per plant reduces yield about 80 lb/acre. This is a linear relationship; thus, 3 larvae per plant reduce yield about 240 lb/acre. Four insecticides are now registered to control rice water weevil. Icon 6.2FS (active ingredient fipronil) is applied as a seed treatment to primarily control larvae. Karate Z and Mustang Max (active ingredient zeta-cypermethrin) are applied as a spray to control adults before they lay eggs. Dimilin 2L (active ingredient diflubenzuron) is applied as a spray to sterilize eggs developing within adult females.
Rice Stink Bug
The rice stink bug is another key pest of rice. This insect has piercing-sucking mouthparts which the insect inserts in rice grains and extracts the contents. Generally, no yield losses are associated with this feeding but rice quality can be affected. Damage results in ‘pecky’ rice which are discolored rice caused by rice stink bug feeding. In addition, upon milling, ‘pecky’ rice tends to break so head rice (% whole grain rice after milling) is reduced. Farmers receive less money for lower quality rice. The rice stink bug lays its eggs in masses (two rows per mass) on rice foliage. After egg hatch, nymphs (immature rice stink bugs without wings) complete five instars before becoming adults. Each instar is a little bigger than the previous instar. The later instars (4th and 5th) and adults cause the most severe damage. Methyl parathion, Sevin XLR Plus (active ingredient carbaryl); Karate Zand Mustang Max (active ingredient zeta-cypermethrin) are recommended for control. Fields with abundant weeds (particularly barnyardgrass) generally harbor high rice stink bug populations. Also, populations of rice stink bug are generally higher near the margins of fields.
FALL ARMYWORM (spodoptera frugiperda)
The fall armyworm is a sporadic pest of rice. The larvae defoliate (consume foliage) of rice. The adult is a moth which lays its eggs in masses on rice leaves. Eggs hatch and the larvae complete four to six instars (stages of growth) before pupating in a cocoon in the soil. Generally, fall armyworm is more severe on rice before the permanent flood. Usually, fall armyworm can be controlled by applying a flush (temporary flood) or permanent flood which drowns the larvae. A wasp parasite (Cotesia sp.) and egrets also can help control populations. Farmers often apply Karate Z for control since this insecticide does not interact with propanil – a commonly applied herbicide.
CHINCH BUG (Blissus leucopterus)
The chinch bug is another sporadic pest of rice. This insect has piercing-sucking mouthparts like the rice stink bug. Adults are winged and are black and white. Adult female chinch bugs lay their orange eggs singly in soil cracks or on rice stems. Eggs hatch and nymphs begin feeding on rice stems usually near the soil surface. The insect completes five nymphal instars before becoming an adult. Seedling rice is very susceptible to attack. At this stage, an average of only one adult per two seedlings can kill rice. Frequently, an effective method of control is to flush rice or apply a permanent flood which drowns insects or forces them to move up the plants where feeding results in less damage compared to feeding on stems near the soil surface. However, rice growing on levees can still be damaged. Consult the latest Rice Production Guidelines for information on insecticidal control.
STEM BORERS
([Mexican rice borer, (MRB), Eoreuma loftini], [sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis] and [rice stalk borer, Chilo plejadellus])
Three species of stem borers attack rice in Texas. The most common are the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis, and the least common is the rice stalk borer, Chilo plejadellus. However, recently the species most problematic are the MRB which was introduced in 1980 from Mexico into the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas where it has become a very serious insect pest. The MRB lays eggs on dead or dying rice foliage. Eggs hatch and larvae move to the inside of leaf sheaths where they are partially protected from natural enemies and pesticide residues. These small larvae feed in the sheaths and eventually bore into the culm. Inside the culm, they feed between nodes to cause “deadhearts” (dead leaves) and “whiteheads” (panicles with unfilled grains). After completing five larval instars, the insect pupates within the culm and emerges as an adult moth. See the latest Rice Production Guidelines for management options.
Damage
§ Stem borers are fed on paddy stem. Destroy vascular system and cause the death of tillers.
§ Cause dead heart. Before panicles form, they have been dried internally. Tillers can be removed easily.
§ At the grain filling stage, damage result in the empty seed and white panicles. Entire panicles become an empty seed.
§ Damage at the stage of growth of panicles, cause damages on leaf bases, bases of the stem. Empty seed is formed in the lower parts of the panicles.
Control
§ Stem borer adapts to improved varieties. Then use insecticides.
§ If the population density of larvae and is moths is increased, can be controlled by using liquid insecticides.
§ Larvae in the stem can be controlled by systemic insecticides.
§ This problem can be minimized by grown according to seasons. Destroying them manually. Minimize the population of larvae in the fields after harvesting.
Grasshoppers (Orthoptera)
Grasshoppers are seldom pests of rice. Usually, populations are highest near the margins of fields. Grasshoppers feed on foliage and sometimes panicles. The most common grasshoppers in rice are long-horned grasshoppers which can also be beneficial since they feed on pest insects as well as rice. Long-horned grasshoppers are easily identified by their very long antennae.
Damage
§ Act as a vector of yellow mottle virus. Eat paddy leaves. When as a group, the damage is severe. Depends on many other host plant.
Control
§ By using insecticides this can be controlled.
Blister Beetles
Blister beetles are sporadic pests of rice. The adults usually move in mass from weedy field margins. They typically defoliate rice and broadleaf weeds late in the season. Occasionally, blister beetles will also feed on the reproductive organs of rice flowers. Insecticides registered for rice stink bug also control blister beetles. Usually, ‘spot’ treatments of insecticides effectively control blister beetle populations.
Leafhoppers
Leafhoppers are sporadic pests of rice. The most common leafhopper in Texas rice fields is the blackfaced leafhopper. Leafhoppers have piercing-sucking mouthparts and remove fluids from the plant causing yield and quality losses. Sooty mold fungus is black and grows on leafhopper exudate. A good indication of high populations of leafhoppers is abundant sooty mold fungus on rice foliage. In addition, foliage takes on a bronze appearance. Consult the latest Rice Production Guidelines for management options.
Top Ten Rice Exporting Countries by Year 2014
| S. No | Country | Exports in Thousand Metric Tonnes |
| 1 | Thailand | 8500 |
| 2 | Vietnam | 6500 |
| 3 | Pakistan | 3800 |
| 4 | India | 2200 |
| 5 | Cambodia | 850 |
| 6 | Uruguay | 700 |
| 7 | China | 600 |
| 8 | Egypt | 600 |
| 9 | Argentina | 500 |
| 10 | Brazil | 400 |
Top Ten Rice Importing Countries by the year 2014
| S. No | Country | Imports in Thousand Metric Tonnes |
| 1 | Philippines | 2600 |
| 2 | Nigeria | 1700 |
| 3 | Iran | 1150 |
| 4 | Saudi Arabia | 1100 |
| 5 | Iraq | 1100 |
| 6 | Malaysia | 1020 |
| 7 | Cote D’lvoire | 860 |
| 8 | South Africa | 800 |
| 9 | Indonesia | 880 |
| 10 | Brazil | 800 |
Rice Exports by Country 2014 in Amount
- India: $8,169,519,000 (34.4% of total rice exports)
- Thailand: $4,420,370,000 (18.6%)
- United States: $2,176,323,000 (9.2%)
- Pakistan: $2,110,992,000 (8.9%)
- Viet Nam: $1,526,056,000 (6.4%)
- Italy: $645,514,000 (2.7%)
- Uruguay: $507,992,000 (2.1%)
- China: $416,699,000 (1.8%)
- Brazil: $400,594,000 (1.7%)
- Australia: $369,906,000 (1.6%)
- Belgium: $315,483,000 (1.3%)
- Argentina: $290,988,000 (1.2%)
- Cambodia: $267,020,000 (1.1%)
- Guyana: $216,660,000 (0.9%)
- Egypt: $199,316,000 (0.8%)
Employment / Labour Force
Rice is an important cash as well as food crop of Pakistan. In about one-tenth of the cultivable land we grow rice. It fulfils more than 2 million tones of our food requirement and this industry has given employment to a large number of people in the country.
Rice need a large amount of water, so it has to be grown in water irrigated areas where large required quantity of water remains available all the time to the farmers. Leveled fertile land with nonporous subsoil layer is required for its cultivation. Rice likes to grow with its ‘feet in water’. Main rice cultivated areas are in Punjab and Sindh. Rice is also cultivated in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa but on a very small scale on terraced fields in the northern areas of Pakistan.
Rice Uses
After removal of the rice grain from the chaff, the rice can be used as brown rice or further processed to remove the bran to produce white rice. Brown and white rice may be consumed after cooking or may be ground into rice flour. Rice can be puffed under low pressure to produce puffed rice that is commonly used as a breakfast cereal. Rice bran oil can be produced from the inner husk and can be used as a cooking oil. Rice starch can be extracted and fermented to produce rice wine or brewed to produce sake.
Rice By-Products
The main byproducts of rice milling are rice hulls or husk, rice bran, and brewer’s rice.
- Rice hulls or husk are generated during the first stage of rice milling when rough rice or paddy rice is husked.
- Uses: The inedible outer husk layer has many uses from fuel in power plants to mulch and abrasives. It can be used as a packing material to pad fragile cargo during shipping.
- Rice bran is generated when brown rice moves through the whiteners and polishers. When paddy is hand-pounded or milled in a one-pass Engle berg steel huller, rice bran is not produced separately but mixed with rice hulls.
- Uses: Produced from the outer layer of the brown rice grain. Used in cereals, mixes, and vitamin concentrates due to its high levels of vitamin B6, iron, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, niacin, and thiamin. Also rich in fiber.
- Brewer’s rice is separated produced when milled rice is sifted.
- Uses: An ingredient used in brewing, especially prized by some Beer manufacturer’s, where it is the premium ingredient. Brewers rice is also used for the processing of other ferment products.
- Rice Bran Oil Extracted from the outer layer of the brown rice kernel. A high quality, delicate tasting cooking oil. Studies have shown that it is effective in lowering blood cholesterol levels.
- Rice Flour Produced from either white or brown rice ground. It's free from gluten so is non-allergenic. Used to produce rice pasta, crisps, cereals and snacks.
- Rice Starch Produced from the endosperm of the grain, used as a thickener in sauces and desserts. Also used in the manufacture of Rice Syrup. It is present in the endosperm of the grain, making up 90-93% of the milled dry weight.
- Ash from Hulls Can be used to clean discoloured teeth and turned into cellulose products e.g. rayon and rice fuel. Rice Syrup A natural sweetener, less intense than traditional sugar syrups and honey. Produced through a hydrolysis process.
- Broken Rice Pieces of rice kernels (that are less than ¾ of a full kernel) are used in the manufacture of various products, including rice flour and pet foods.
Sowing and Harvesting Season of Rice
| Season | Sowing | Harvesting |
| Autumn | March-August | June-December |
| Winter | June-October | November-April |
| Summer | November-February | March-June |
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